Self-awareness of Limitations ofOwn Knowledge Accompanied by a Desire of Self-improvement

Teacher Qualifications for English as a Second

Language Upon completing their high school studies in Quebec, many students have insufficient knowledge of English (Government of Quebec, 1996). From a learner’s perspective, factors often researched in second language acquisition (SLA) inc1ude: social context, age, exposure to English, aptitude, attitude, motivation, memory, and quality of instruction (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, & Goodwin, 1996; Lacroix, 2002; Michael & Gollan, 2005; Saville-Troike, 2012). Nevertheless, Lacroix (2002) c1aimed that, « there are many reasons for [students’] low achievement, sorne of which are teacher related » (p. 1). In addition, Savignon (1991) says that the language teacher in language teaching has been overlooked in SLA research. SLA research seems to pay much attention to the learning process and the learner, comparatively, very little to the teacher (Ârva & Medgyes, 2000). In terms of SLA research, more needs to be done to understand the role of the teacher as a major factor in ESL learning. « [U]nqualified teachers have long been a problem and concern of parents and administrators » (Svetgoff, 2007, p. 2).

Chiefly, « [t]he effectiveness of the teacher is the major determinant of student academic progress » (Sanders & Horn, 1998, p. 247). In 1995-1996, in the final report on the Estates General on Education, it was importantly stated that the teachers’ qualifications should be ensured (Government of Quebec, 1996). Consequently, the problem of ESL teacher qualifications should also be a concern for universities because they are responsible for training future teachers. The government of Quebec decides on a teacher-training program for universities to follow with regards to teacher qualifications. This pro gram encompasses two key orientations: professionalization and cultural approach to teaching (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001). To achieve the two orientations, the Government of Quebec adopts the concept of competencies by defining 12 professional competencies (PC), which all future teachers develop during their initial training and should continue developing throughout their career (Ibid. , 2001 ). « To practise their profession, teachers must have mastered the set of competencies to varying degrees » (Ibid. , 2001 , p. 26). Among the 12 PC, the first concerns the English language as knowledge and culture and the second a means of communication for future ESL teachers.

The first PC states that the teacher « act[ s] as a professional who is inheritor, critic and interpreter of knowledge or culture when teaching students » (Ibid. , 2001 , p.56), knowledge or culture, in this case, referring to the English language. Briefly, this PC connects the objects of culture with knowledge to be taught. Again, the objects of culture and knowledge relate to teaching the subject matter: English as a second language. Adopting a cultural approach suggests that, in order to be a cultural critic, the teacher must know more than what is contained in the training program (Ibid. , 2001). English teachers must exhibit a critical understanding ofthe knowledge to be taught (Ibid. , 2001). With insufficient knowledge of English as a subject matter, teachers are unable to relate cultural content elements to help the students establish links between elements of knowledge (Ibid. , 2001). Therefore, future teachers must be aware oftheir own cultural development with its potential and limitations (Ibid., 2001). The Conseil supérieur de l ‘éducation (1987, in Gouvernement du Québec, 2001) notes that language is seen as a major cultural tool and a key to knowledge and as an instrument of communication, thus connecting PC 1 and PC 2.

The second PC states that the teacher « communicate[s] clearly in the language of instruction, both oraIly and in writing, using correct grammar, in various contexts related to teacbing » (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001, p. 63); the language of instruction in the ESL classroom is English (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001). According to Lebrun and Préfontaine (1999), the school – thus its teachers – is almost irreplaceable in introducing students to the standardized written and spoken language. In ESL, teachers are assets as linguistic and cultural models and must speak English at aIl times (Ibid., 2001). ESL teachers are constant models for their students (Ibid. , 2001). As ESL teachers are constant models for their students, it is expected that they use English in a professional way and that their linguistic competency be greater than the ordinary citizen (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001). Furthermore, one of the required levels of mastery of tbis PC establishes that, by the end of the initial teacher-training pro gram, the teacher must « [ e ]xpress himself or herself with the ease, precision, efficiency and accuracy expected by society of a teaching professional » (Gouvernement du Québec, 2001, p. 67). Seemingly, in uni lingual French areas, where universities train future ESL teachers, this may not be attained.

Native-Speaking and Non-Native

Speaking English Teachers The dichotomy between native-speaking (NS) and non-native-speaking (NNS) English teachers can be a source of tension among language teachers because it expresses historically constructed social perceptions (Derivry-Plard, 2011). Derivry-Plard (2011) affirms that the concepts of native speakers and non-native speakers continue to be present in society, particularly for language teachers. For example, the author mentions job offers still using the native/non-native dichotomy. Braine (1999) estimates that about 80 percent of ESL teachers worldwide are people for whom English is not their « native » language, but their second (L2) or third language (L3). « [NNS English teachers] will continue to outnumber their native-speaking counterparts simply because the vast majority of English users are NNS » (Braine, 2005, p. 23), and these teachers take and will continue to take a prominent place in teaching ESL (Braine, 1999). In the last decades, the issue of NNS English teachers has given rise to much literature, such as Braine (1999), Kachru (1986), Medgyes (1992), Paikeday (1985) to name a few. However, research concerning NNS English teachers is insufficiently done considering the numbers involved (Hayes, 2009). Similarly, Byram (2002) dec1ares: « On the whole, the study of the non-native teacher remains a largely unexplored area in language education » (p. 645). Medgyes’ study (1992) conc1uded, essentially that, « the ideal « non-native » English-speaking teacher is the one who has achieved near-native proficiency in English » (p. 349). Similarly, language teacher educators have also expressed the importance of the native speaker being the model and native-like language being the goal of a language leamer (Mahboob, 2005). In Quebec, no figures exist for the number of NNS English teachers; nonetheless, there are many predominantly French unilingual areas (Gazai11e, 2010), where English is an L2 or L3 for pre-service and in-service English teachers. Thus, English having taken importance in Quebec schools, it appears necessary that ESL teachers be proficient language models. Specifically, the ESL teachers’ proficiency in English seems more critical when « students in language c1assrooms are more likely to receive limited exposure to the second language » (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 32).

Defming Native-Speaking and Non-Native Speaking English Teachers First recorded in 1933, Bloomfield defined the term native speaker as: « The first language a human being learns to speak is his native language; he is a native speaker of this language » (p. 43). Similarly, Noam Chomsky’s linguistic concepts remain at the heart of the ideology promoting superiority to the native speaking language teacher (Canagarajah, 1999). Chomsky’s notion pervades the ideology that the native speaker is the authority on the language and the ideal informant of grammatical judgments (Canagarajah, 1999). The terms native speaker and non-native speaker are widely used by both teachers and researchers (Arva & Medgyes, 2000). These terms are useful terms, precisely because they cannot be dosely defined mainly because sorne people grow up in monolingual societies where the native language is the only one learned; however, most people do not grow up in monolingual societies (Edge, 1988). This native speaker is a linguistic unicom which cannot be associated to a group of living beings (Edge, 1988). Rampton (1990) argues: « expertise is leamed, not fixed or innate » (p. 98), and that expertise shifts the attention from ‘who you are’ to ‘what you know’ .

Consequently, Jun Liu (1999)3 believes that the concept of expertise reduces prejudice and discrimination against NNS English teachers, and he disputes the idea that the ideal English teacher is a native speaker. AIso, Davies (2001) daims: « The native speaker is a fine myth: we need it as a model, a goal, almost an inspiration. But it is useless as a measure » (p. 108). Moreover, Watson Todd and Pojanapunya (2009) come to the realization that NS and NNS English teachers are simply different rather than one being superior to the other. « [N]ative speakership should not be used as a criterion for exduding certain categories of people from language teaching, [ . .. ] » (Paikeday, 1985, p. 88). Paikeday’s (1985) solution is to change the construct of the native speaker, making proficiency the criterion for employment. One could think, as Cheshire (1991), Ferguson (1992), and Kachru (1992) suggested of dropping the concept of the native speaker. What remains important is the issue ofhow qualified an ESL teacher is (J. Liu, 1999). However, even if these arguments seem valid, as Medgyes (1999) c1aims, we seem to be « a dwindling minority who wishes to retain the dichotomy, if only for the sake of convenience » (p. 177). Even though the native/non-native distinction is held in disregard (Arva & Medgyes, 2000), it provides a useful linguistic competence yardstick, because applied linguistics needs a model, norms, and goals, with regards to language teaching (Davies, 2003). For example, Pasternak and Bailey (2004) apply the NS/NNS English teacher dichotomy for their research, despite c1aiming it being a simplistic debate and being a problem offinding precise definitions of the terms.